The foundation of the state is justice(the Indian-Persian Circle of Justice theory).
In the Topkapı Palace archives, Leonardo da Vinci’s application to come to İstanbul and perform construction works for the Sultan was discovered.
Melametiyye, radical in their anti-government beliefs, survived only as underground organizations. The government persecuted melameti leaders
rica ederiz
The overland trade routes between Europe and Asia that had been nice and easy to travel when the Mongol Empire stretched across much of Eurasia were now blocked, thanks to a combination of the Black Death and the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
For the entire length of its history, the Balkans has been considered the powder keg of Europe. In our century, it is namely from the Balkans that the First World War started. The Second World War received an impulse from the Balkans, which for its relative significance compares with the start of the Russian campaign. Now, at the end of the 20th Century, we are witnesses to a new Balkan crisis, with the potential to lead to serious consequences. History shows that the Balkans became the border between the Christian and Muslim worlds, after their conquest by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th Century. Therefore, any conflict here at once carries religious and ethnic ramifications conflict in which those striving to establish their hegemony over that peninsula always play roles. Nazi Germany was particularly successful at this; the creation and use of Balkan Muslim volunteer formations were one of the instruments of its occupation policy in the region.
Admission of Turkey to the Public Law of Europe and the Rudiments of Formal Reform
The decision of the Christion Powers of Europe to embrace Turkey was an anomaly as European public law, the bastion of European legalism, was instrinsically on a collision course with the Ottoman theocratic system and its religious dogmas. The Concert of Europe already in 1648 in Westphalia had laid the foundation of the doctrine of the separation of church and state and thus, in a rudimentary form, had already decided to subordinate religious dogmas to legal principle, the rule of law; it thus consecrated secularism as the cornerstone of the system of the family of nations. But the Ottoman Empire, for most of its history, was and remained a theocracy which, by definition and fact, cannot be secularized; laws that are predicated upon permanently fixed and intractable religious precepts cannot be modified, much less reformed.
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Admission of Turkey to the Public Law of Europe and the Rudiments of Formal Reform
In his inaugural speech to the Council of State in 1868, Abdul Aziz, the successor of Sultan Mecid who had enacted the two Reform edicts cited above, vowed to protect and defend the members of all nationalities as "children of the same fatherland." Yet, in spite of all these professions and asssurances, intermittently reasserted up to the 1876 Constitution and beyond, "No genuine equality was ever attained." [10] The reason was evident. The reforms were a repudiation of fundamental socio-religous traditions deeply enmeshed in the Turkish psyche, and institutionalized throughout the Empire. When the 1856 edict was proclaimed:
" Many Moslems began to grumble: 'Today we lost our sacred national rights which our ancestors gained with their blood. While the Islamic nation used to be the ruling nation, it is now bereft of his sacred right. This is a day of tears and mourning for the Moslem brethren.' [11] "
Within few years (1859), these reations culminated in what is known as the Kuleli revolt in the capital. Army officers joined hands with Muslim clergymen and teachers in an attempt to overthrow the regime in protest against what they considered to be sumbisliveness to foreign powers, and the illegimitimacy of the act of granting equal rights to the Christians.
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10. Roderic H. Davison, "Turkish Attitudes Concerning Christian-Muslim Equality in the Nineteenth Century," American Historical Review 59 (July 1954), p. 848
11. Şerif Mardin, The Genensis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), p. 18
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Though they had their share of disagreements and riots, and though the Ottoman Empire routinely discriminated against people on religious grounds, it was a liberal paradise compared with Europe.
